ABSTRACT
Dyes are the most difficult constituents to remove by conventional biological wastewater treatment. Colored wastewater is mainly eliminated by physical and chemical procedures, which are very expensive and have drawbacks. Therefore, the advantage of using biological processes, such as the biotransformation of dyes, is that they may lead to complete mineralization or formation of less toxic products. To prove the possibility of using fungal processes for decolorization and other applications, the analysis of the toxicity of the processes' products is required. The decolorization of the mixture of two dyes from different classes - triphenylmethane brilliant green and azo Evans blue (GB - total concentration 0.08 g/L, proportion 1:1 w/w) - by Pleurotus ostreatus (BWPH and MB), Gloeophyllum odoratum (DCa), RWP17 (Polyporus picipes) and Fusarium oxysporum (G1) was studied. Zootoxicity (Daphnia magna) and phytotoxicity (Lemna minor) changes were estimated at the end of the experiment. The mixture of dyes was significantly removed by all the strains that were tested with 96 h of experimental time. However, differences among strains from the same species (P. ostreatus) were noted. Shaking improved the efficacy and rate of the dye removal. In static samples, the removal of the mixture reached more than 51.9% and in shaken samples, more than 79.2%. Tests using the dead biomass of the fungi only adsorbed up to 37% of the dye mixture (strain BWPH), which suggests that the process with the living biomass involves the biotransformation of the dyes. The best results were reached for the MB strain, which removed 90% of the tested mixture under shaking conditions. Regardless of the efficacy of the dye removal, toxicity decreased from class V to class III in tests with D. magna. Tests with L. minor control samples were classified as class IV, and samples with certain strains were non-toxic. The highest phytotoxicity decrease was noted in shaken samples where the elimination of dye mixture was the best.
Subject(s)
Animals , Basidiomycota/growth & development , Basidiomycota/metabolism , Evans Blue/metabolism , Fusarium/growth & development , Fusarium/metabolism , Rosaniline Dyes/metabolism , Wastewater/microbiology , Araceae/drug effects , Araceae/physiology , Biotransformation , Cell Survival/drug effects , Daphnia/drug effects , Daphnia/physiology , Evans Blue/toxicity , Rosaniline Dyes/toxicity , Water Purification/methodsABSTRACT
Malachite green (MG) induces DNA damage and malignant transformation of Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells in primary culture. In the present study, we have studied the role of all the three isoforms of mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinases i.e. ERK (extracellular regulated kinase), JNK (JUN- N- terminal kinase) and p38 kinase during transformation of SHE cells by MG. The results showed that transformed cells were associated with a decreased expression of phosphoactive ERK and JNK and increased expression of p38 kinase as evident from the Western blot, immunofluorescence and flow cytometry studies. Also, a persistent nuclear localization of p38 kinase was observed in the transformed cells. The present study indicated that p38 kinase was present at higher levels and seemed to be associated with transformation, which suggested that inhibitors of p38 kinase could serve in general as potential agents for selective cancer therapy.
Subject(s)
Animals , Blotting, Northern , Blotting, Western , Cell Culture Techniques , Cell Cycle/drug effects , Cell Line, Transformed , Cell Nucleus/drug effects , Coloring Agents/toxicity , Cricetinae , Cyclin D1/genetics , Cytoplasm/drug effects , Extracellular Signal-Regulated MAP Kinases/biosynthesis , Fibroblasts/cytology , Flow Cytometry , Fluorescent Antibody Technique , Gene Expression/drug effects , Isoenzymes , JNK Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/biosynthesis , Mesocricetus , Rosaniline Dyes/toxicity , p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/biosynthesisABSTRACT
Malachite green (MG), consisting of green crystals with a metallic lustre, is very soluble in water and is highly cytotoxic to mammalian cells in culture and also acts as a liver tumour promoter. In view of its industrial importance and possible exposure to human beings, MG poses a potential environmental health hazard. Accordingly, we have studied the effect of MG on the formation of free radicals using Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) analysis with 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (DMPO) as a spin trapping agent. ESR analysis showed formation of reactive free radicals during exposure of MG to Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells. As per mechanism-based toxicology in cancer risk assessment, the chemicals that have the potential to be metabolized to active free radical species could be human cancer hazards. So, we have investigated the effect of MG on the formation of Type II and Type III morphologically transformed foci using SHE cell transformation assay. MG induced dose related transformed foci. Some of these transformed foci were taken out using selective trypsinisation and established immortal cell lines. One of these immortal cell lines was characterized extensively. This immortal cell line showed enhanced DNA synthesis in the form of BrdU incorporation, increased presence of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), bcl-2 and p53 proteins by immunohistochemistry. When these immortal cells were injected subcutaneously into nude mice, they developed tumors which were transplantable and histopathologically sarcomas. The present studies indicate that MG could be a potential candidate for two year chemical carcinogenesis rodent bioassays.